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Glossary

  • An abrasive is a material or substance used to wear down or polish surfaces by friction. In ancient times, abrasives like sand, crushed stone, or pumice were used to smooth stone or metal surfaces, particularly for finishing sculptures or architectural elements. Given the context in which the(...)
  • A structural base or pedestal that holds an acroterion in place on a pediment. It ensures the acroterion is securely attached to the building, often blending with the design of the acroterion itself. These supports are integral to stabilizing the decorative elements at the apex and corners of(...)
  • A sculptural ornament placed on the apex and corners of the pediment of classical buildings, often used in Greek and Roman architecture. Acroteria can be statues, floral decorations, or palmettes, adding decorative emphasis to the structure. In general, they are divided into: 1) Upper(...)
  • An aedicule is a small architectural shrine or niche, often embedded in rock or constructed as part of a temple or tomb facade. In Hegra, an aedicule could house images, statues, or symbols of deities and serve as a place for offerings or prayer.
  • An altar is a raised structure used for offerings or sacrifices, often central to religious rituals. In Nabataean culture, altars were usually carved out of rock near tombs, temples, or open sanctuaries, where offerings to gods or spirits of the deceased were made. At the Hegra Archaeological(...)
  • Some areas show alveolisation, with cavities in the rock that amplify the deterioration. The rock itself appears particularly predisposed to the formation of alveoli of variable sizes and forms.
  • Tomb with a crowning consisting in a round arch.
  • attic In the context of a Nabataean tomb, the term "attic" refers to a decorative architectural element located above the main part of the facade. Specifically, it is the upper section of the tomb's facade, often situated above the cornice. The attic typically features intricate carvings and(...)
  • axe The axe is a versatile tool used in ancient stone carving. It has a long wooden handle and a broad metal blade, making it suitable for cutting and shaping stone. The axe shows signs of heavy use, with scratches and wear on the handle and blade, indicating its importance in stoneworking tasks.
  • A basin for ablutions is a stone or carved receptacle used to hold water for ritual cleansing or purification. In Nabataean religious practices, ablution basins were placed near shrines or temples, where visitors would cleanse themselves before performing worship or entering sacred spaces.
  • A sacred stone or rock that was venerated in ancient Near Eastern and Mediterranean cultures. Often found in religious contexts, betyls were considered to be embodiments of divine power or presence and were frequently placed in temples or other sacred sites. They could be simple natural(...)
  • Dark areas on the rock surfaces indicate possible biological colonisation. These stains appear as biological substrates, and the presence of insect nests, such as wasps, may contribute to biological decay and aggravate disintegration issues.
  • burialcell A burial cell is a small, enclosed space or compartment within a larger tomb or burial structure, designed to hold the remains of the deceased. These cells are often individual spaces that can contain a body, urn, or sarcophagus, and are typically found in communal burial sites or larger tomb(...)
  • burianiche A burial niche is a small recessed space, often found in tombs or catacombs, designed to hold human remains, such as a body, urn, or sarcophagus. These niches are typically carved into stone or constructed within walls and were commonly used in ancient burial practices across various(...)
  • capill Capillary rising damp causes erosion, disintegration, cracks, and exfoliation of the rock surfaces, as well as the formation of incoherent deposits, including sand and soil, and white salt crusts in some areas.
  • A decorative oval, rectangular, or scroll-shaped frame, commonly used in architecture and art to enclose inscriptions, names, or heraldic devices. In classical and Renaissance architecture, cartouches often appear on monuments, buildings, and tombs, serving both functional and ornamental(...)
  • Also referred to as a clearing trench, this is a large vertical trench dug on either side of rock facades to facilitate the carving of architectural features. Within the framework of the Hegra Conservation Project, the term cleaning trench identifies both the lateral - and therefore vertical(...)
  • A compass in ancient construction is a tool used for drawing circles or arcs and measuring distances. It consists of two arms connected by a hinge, with one arm acting as a point and the other holding a pencil or marking tool. Ancient builders used compasses for precise layout and geometric(...)
  • The uppermost projecting section of an entablature or a decorative horizontal moulding that crowns a building or architectural element. Functionally, it serves to throw rainwater away from the building's walls, but it is also often used decoratively, forming part of the classical orders in(...)
  • crack The tombs often display vertical and horizontal cracks, following the sedimentation plans of the rock itself. This form of degradation frequently led to the detachment of fragments.
  • In Nabataean rock architecture, the space between two crenels used for decoration is known as a crowstep. Crowsteps can appear in various forms: as simple or double rows with small dimensions and shallow relief, ending in two half-crowsteps, or as two opposing half-crowsteps with more(...)
  • delamination Delamination is evident on the external and often internal wall surfaces, running subparallel to the sedimentation plan. This phenomenon indicates significant structural issues and contributes to the loss of structural integrity.
  • Inside the tombs, there are incoherent deposits of sand and soil, and percolation of guano is visible beneath the funerary cells and overhanging areas where birds nest. Additionally, the solubilization and redeposition of the rock can provoke the formation of more coherent deposits,(...)
  • deat The deterioration of the rock has caused the detachment of portions of material in several tombs, compromising the stability of the structures. This phenomenon is particularly evident beneath the thresholds and on the more exposed rock surfaces.
  • discolu Dark grey or brown stains are common on various surfaces of the tombs. They often extend horizontally and are located at varying heights from the ground.
  • The rock surfaces of the tombs show signs of disintegration, especially in the lower areas of the facades and on the surfaces of the thresholds. This form of degradation is often linked to the presence of salt efflorescence and capillary rising damp.
  • The structure surrounding and supporting a door, typically consisting of two vertical side jambs, a horizontal lintel or head across the top, and sometimes a threshold at the bottom. It serves both a functional and decorative role, framing the door within the wall.
  • A drill in the context of ancient construction and processing techniques refers to a tool used for creating holes or indentations in hard materials like stone, wood, or metal. Ancient drills were typically hand-powered and evolved in various forms depending on the civilization and the(...)
  • White salt efflorescence, caused by water evaporation, are visible on many rock surfaces. The less visible subflorescence also contribute to deterioration and often leads to exfoliation and detachment.
  • The characteristic upper component of an Egyptian entablature, consisting of: 1) Egyptian gorge: a concave, curvilinear moulding typically used as a decorative element in entablatures, situated above other components like the architrave. The Egyptian gorge features a smooth, sweeping curve(...)
  • egyptian-entablature An architectural element found in Nabataean tombs, inspired by Egyptian architecture. It consists of the horizontal structure supported by columns, typically divided into three main parts: Architrave: The lowest section, resting directly on the capitals of the columns. It is usually a(...)
  • erosion The facades of many tombs display widespread erosion, particularly on the upper steps of the half-crowsteps and lower parts of the facade. This phenomenon caused the loss of original material and tool marks.
  • The lower parts of many tombs show exfoliation related to capillary rising damp, water stagnation, and salt efflorescence.
  • flatchisel The flat chisel is a tool used in ancient times for stone carving. It features a broad, flat blade ideal for removing large amounts of material and creating smooth surfaces. This tool shows signs of wear, with scratches and nicks indicating prolonged use.
  • A frieze is the horizontal middle section of an entablature in classical architecture, situated between the architrave and the cornice. In architectural design, the frieze serves both an aesthetic and functional purpose, contributing to the overall visual appeal of the structure. At the Hegra(...)
  • Numerous graffiti, of various types, mark the facades of the tombs. They are located in areas such as near the entrances, cartouches, and the base of the tombs. Mortar interventions, sometimes of a different colour than the original rock, have been used to cover vandalic graffiti or natural(...)
  • grecoromano In the context of a Nabataean tomb, the Greco-Roman entablature refers to the horizontal architectural structure supported by columns, influenced by classical Greek and Roman styles. This entablature is typically divided into three main parts: Architrave: The lowest section, which rests(...)
  • half-crowsteps An architectural decorative element typical of Nabataean tombs, characterized by a series of broken steps arranged along the upper edge of the facade or at the sides of the pediment. These steps, resembling a broken staircase, give the structure an ornate and intricate appearance,(...)
  • The hammer is a tool used for shaping, cutting, or dressing stone, wood, or metal. Ancient hammers were typically made of stone, bronze, or iron and were essential for working with large blocks of material used in monumental construction. They were often used in combination with other tools,(...)
  • The Ionic entablature is characterized by its use in the Ionic order of classical architecture. It typically includes: 1) Architrave: The lower section that rests directly on the columns or pilasters. 2) Frieze: The middle section, which may be plain or decorated with reliefs or inscriptions.(...)
  • A semicircular or crescent-shaped architectural element, typically found in the wall space above a door, window, or within a vault. Lunettes often contain, paintings, or sculptural decorations, and are frequently seen in Renaissance and Baroque architecture. This decorative element does not(...)
  • mainburialchamber The main burial chamber is the central or primary room within a tomb or mausoleum where the most significant burial, usually of an individual of high status or importance, is located. This chamber typically houses the body or sarcophagus of the deceased and is often the focal point of the(...)
  • mec Mechanical damage is mainly caused by projectile impacts, visible in various areas of the tomb facades, but mostly located around the acroteria, presumably used as targets.
  • There are visible losses of decorative elements such as carved eagle heads, rims of acroteria, and small portions of material along the edges of the capitals and on decorative elements.
  • moist Moisture stains indicate infiltration problems that contribute to disintegration and the formation of white salt efflorescence, particularly noticeable. This phenomenon is particularly visible at the lower parts of many tombs, where it exhibits capillary rising damp, water stagnation, and the(...)
  • mortar Mortar is a mixture used in construction to bind building materials such as stone or brick together. It is made by combining a binding agent (usually lime), water, and an aggregate (such as sand). When mixed and applied, the mortar hardens, creating a durable bond between the construction(...)
  • A type of capital where the decorative elements are primarily created through moulding rather than intricate carving or sculptural detailing. This style typically features smooth, rounded profiles, including bands, rings, or cushion-like forms, which are shaped into the capital. It emphasizes(...)
  • A distinctive variant of the Corinthian capital found in Nabataean architecture, particularly in their rock-cut tombs and monumental structures. It is characterized by the following features: Acanthus Leaves: Like the traditional Corinthian capital, it features rows of acanthus leaves.(...)
  • A decorated band placed between the top of a column or pilaster shaft and a capital. At Hegra, the necking is a simple band, smooth and slightly projecting.
  • paintfilm Paint film refers to a layer of paint that has dried and hardened on a surface. Ancient paint films were made from various natural pigments mixed with binders, such as oils, resins, or egg yolk. Paint films served several purposes: 1) Decoration: Paint was used to add colour and design to(...)
  • Triangle-shaped architectural crowning, often supported by columns or pilasters, and consisting of a tympanum or lunette, surrounded by a cornice and surmounted by acroteria supports. At Hegra it forms the upper part of the entrance decoration of several tombs and is often decorated with(...)
  • percolation The runoff caused by the washing of surfaces by rainwater is visible along the facades, especially on the lateral pilasters and under the most protruding decorative elements, such as Egyptian cornices. They often develop as parallel vertical strikes.
  • A petroglyph is a rock carving or engraving created by pecking, chipping, or incising the surface of the stone. At Hegra, petroglyphs depict animals, humans, and symbols, offering insights into the daily life, beliefs, and artistic traditions of the Nabataeans.
  • pick The pick is a traditional tool used for breaking and shaping stone. It features a long, sturdy wooden handle and a robust, pointed metal head. This tool is well-suited for heavy-duty tasks and shows signs of extensive use, with wear marks on both the handle and the head.
  • pittomb A pit tomb is a simple type of burial structure where a pit or trench is dug into the ground to inter the deceased. This form of burial is one of the earliest and most basic types of tombs, commonly used across various ancient cultures. In ancient burial practices, pit tombs could vary in(...)
  • plant Plants and shrubs can cause mechanical damage, disintegration, and contribute to increased moisture. However, those located close to the massif appear to contribute to the reduction of the absorption of salts from the soil by the rock, using them as nutrients and at the same time assisting in(...)
  • plaster Plaster is a building material used to coat walls and ceilings, providing a smooth, durable surface. It is typically made by mixing lime or gypsum with sand and water. In ancient construction, plaster served several key functions: 1) Surface Finishing: Plaster was used to create a smooth and(...)
  • A plumb line is a simple tool made of a string with a weight (plumb bob) at the end, used to determine a vertical line or true vertical alignment. It was essential in ancient construction for ensuring walls, columns, and other structural elements were perfectly vertical.
  • pointchisel The point chisel is an essential tool for ancient stoneworking. It has a sharp point that allows for fine detailing and precise lines on stone surfaces. It is commonly used for precision work and intricate carvings.
  • Tomb whose façade is framed by pilasters, with a crowning composed of two symmetrical half-crowsteps facing each other and an entablature consisting of an architrave and an Egyptian cornice.
  • Tomb whose façade is framed by pilasters, the crowning composed of two symmetrical half-crowsteps facing each other and the entablature consisting of an architrave, frieze and Egyptian cornice. They differ from the Proto-Hegra type 1 tombs in the presence of the frieze
  • A simplified version of the classical Doric capital, found in Nabataean and other regional architectures that adapted Greek influences. Unlike the traditional Doric capital, which features a plain, rounded echinus and abacus, the pseudo-Doric version modifies or omits certain details, such as(...)
  • A variation of the classical Ionic capital, adapted in Nabataean architecture. It retains the characteristic volutes (spiral scrolls) of the Ionic order but simplifies or alters other elements, such as the absence of the typical fluted shaft and additional decorative details. This adaptation(...)
  • sandstone Sandstone is a sedimentary rock composed mainly of sand-sized mineral particles or rock fragments, most commonly quartz and feldspar. It forms from the compaction and cementation of sand over long periods, typically in environments like riverbeds, deserts, or beaches. In the context of(...)
  • A saw is a tool with a serrated blade used for cutting materials such as wood, stone, or metal. In ancient times, saws were typically made of bronze or iron, and were used to cut blocks of stone or wood with precision. Large stone saws were used for cutting softer stones like limestone and marble.
  • The internal walls and ceilings of many tombs exhibit scaling, which has led to the loss of surface stone. This phenomenon is often observable also in correspondence to the capillary rising damp front and the breaking surface of a missing part.
  • secondary A secondary burial chamber is an additional or subsidiary room within a tomb or burial complex, used for the interment of individuals other than the primary occupant, such as family members, servants, or important figures related to the deceased. In many cases, secondary burial chambers were(...)
  • A set square is a triangular or L-shaped tool used to draw or check right angles. In ancient construction, it was crucial for ensuring accurate 90-degree angles between two surfaces, particularly in the construction of walls, corners, and structural elements.
  • The central, vertical portion of a column or pilaster, typically plain or fluted. In both forms, the shaft tapers as it ascends, contributing to the overall proportion and visual elegance of the structure.
  • A shrine is defined as a place regarded as holy or sacred due to its association with a religious figure, event, or relic. It is often a site of pilgrimage where people visit to offer prayers or pay homage. At Hegra it often includes a betyl.
  • The thirteen-knot rope was an ancient measuring tool, particularly used by Egyptian and Nabataeans builders. The rope was divided into 12 equal sections by knots, forming a geometric tool to create right triangles (3-4-5 triangles). This technique allowed ancient builders to measure and(...)
  • Tomb of which only the half-crowsteps coronation has been carved and whose typology is impossible to specify due to their unfinished state.
  • Tomb whose top is composed of one row of crowsteps.
  • onerow2 Tomb whose top is composed of one row of crowsteps.
  • tworows Tomb whose crowning consists of two rows of crowsteps separated by an attic.
  • Tomb whose internal structures have been developed (i.e., with a main burial chamber and several secondary structures, such as niches, pit tombs and cells), while the exterior has no façade and features only a door-frame and/or staircase. At the archaeological site of Hegra, access to this(...)
  • A tooth chisel is a specialized type of chisel with a serrated edge, featuring multiple pointed teeth, used in stone carving and processing. In ancient construction techniques, the tooth chisel was essential for refining the surface of stone blocks and sculptures after the rough shaping had(...)
  • A convex curvilinear moulding with a profile that can be smaller, equal to, or larger than a half-circle. In Nabataean architecture, it is commonly found situated beneath the Egyptian gorge.
  • A triclinium is a dining room typically featuring three benches or couches arranged around a central table. In Nabataean culture, the triclinium was often carved into rock and used for ceremonial feasts or banquets, particularly those held to honour the dead or celebrate religious rituals.
  • tympanum In the context of a Nabataean tomb, the tympanum refers to the triangular or semi-circular decorative area located within the pediment, which is the triangular upper part of the facade. This architectural element, influenced by classical Greek and Roman styles, is often elaborately decorated(...)
  • A wedge is a simple tool used in ancient construction and processing techniques to split or shape materials such as stone, wood, or metal. It consists of a triangular, tapered piece made of a hard material, such as stone, bronze, or iron, with a thick base and a pointed end. When driven into(...)

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